Principles of operation
Nuclear reactors operate on the principle of nuclear fission, the process in which a heavy atomic nucleus splits into two smaller fragments. The nuclear fragments are in very excited states and emit neutrons, other subatomic particles, and photons. The emitted neutrons may then cause new fissions, which in turn yield more neutrons, and so forth. Such a continuous self-sustaining series of fissions constitutes a fission chain reaction. A large amount of energy is released in this process, and this energy is the basis of nuclear power systems.
In an atomic bomb the chain reaction is designed to increase in intensity until much of the material has fissioned. This increase is very rapid and produces the extremely prompt, tremendously energetic explosions characteristic of such bombs. In a nuclear reactor the chain reaction is maintained at a controlled, nearly constant level. Nuclear reactors are so designed that they cannot explode like atomic bombs.
Most of the energy of fission—approximately 85 percent of it—is released within a very short time after the process has occurred. The remainder of the energy produced as a result of a fission event comes from the radioactive decay of fission products, which are fission fragments after they have emitted neutrons. Radioactive decay is the process by which an atom reaches a more stable state; the decay process continues even after fissioning has ceased, and its energy must be dealt with in any proper reactor design.
Chain reaction and criticality
The course of a chain reaction is determined by the probability that a neutron released in fission will cause a subsequent fission. If the neutron population in a reactor decreases over a given period of time, the rate of fission will decrease and ultimately drop to zero. In this case the reactor will be in what is known as a subcritical state. If over the course of time the neutron population is sustained at a constant rate, the fission rate will remain steady, and the reactor will be in what is called a critical state. Finally, if the neutron population increases over time, the fission rate and power will increase, and the reactor will be in a supercritical state.
Before a reactor is started up, the neutron population is near zero. During reactor start-up, operators remove control rods from the core in order to promote fissioning in the reactor core, effectively putting the reactor temporarily into a supercritical state. When the reactor approaches its nominal power level, the operators partially reinsert the control rods, balancing out the neutron population over time. At this point the reactor is maintained in a critical state, or what is known as steady-state operation. When a reactor is to be shut down, operators fully insert the control rods, inhibiting fission from occurring and forcing the reactor to go into a subcritical state.
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Reactor control
A commonly used parameter in the nuclear industry is reactivity, which is a measure of the state of a reactor in relation to where it would be if it were in a critical state. Reactivity is positive when a reactor is supercritical, zero at criticality, and negative when the reactor is subcritical. Reactivity may be controlled in various ways: by adding or removing fuel, by altering the ratio of neutrons that leak out of the system to those that are kept in the system, or by changing the amount of absorber that competes with the fuel for neutrons. In the latter method the neutron population in the reactor is controlled by varying the absorbers, which are commonly in the form of movable control rods (though in a less commonly used design, operators can change the concentration of absorber in the reactor coolant). Changes of neutron leakage, on the other hand, are often automatic. For example, an increase of power will cause a reactor’s coolant to reduce in density and possibly boil. This decrease in coolant density will increase neutron leakage out of the system and thus reduce reactivity—a process known as negative-reactivity feedback. Neutron leakage and other mechanisms of negative-reactivity feedback are vital aspects of safe reactor design.
A typical fission interaction takes place on the order of one picosecond (10−12 second). This extremely fast rate does not allow enough time for a reactor operator to observe the system’s state and respond appropriately. Fortunately, reactor control is aided by the presence of so-called delayed neutrons, which are neutrons emitted by fission products some time after fission has occurred. The concentration of delayed neutrons at any one time (more commonly referred to as the effective delayed neutron fraction) is less than 1 percent of all neutrons in the reactor. However, even this small percentage is sufficient to facilitate the monitoring and control of changes in the system and to regulate an operating reactor safely.
